List of Figures and Tables 
 
15
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 
 
23
Definitions of Central Terms 
 
25
i. Background of the Research 
 
31
ii. Research Objectives 
 
44
iii. Methodology and Structure 
 
47
Trajectory of Developments in Plant Innovation and
 
A. Trajectory of Developments in Plant Innovation 
 
51
i. The Key Characteristics of Plant Innovation 
 
52
ii. Paradigm of Phenotype 
 
55
iii. Paradigm Shift from Phenotype to Genotype 
 
58
iv. Molecular Breeding Era 
 
61
v. Nanoscale Breeding and Plants as Genetic Datasets 
 
70
B. Trajectory of Developments in IP Protection 
 
73
i. Institutional Shifts in Plant Breeding 
 
73
ii. Advent of Plant Variety Protection 
 
78
iii. Advent of Patent Protection 
 
84
Existing IP Law Framework for Plant Innovation
 
A. Key Differences between Plant Variety Protection and Patent Protection 
 
87
i. Farmers as User–innovators and Farm–saved Seed Exemption 
 
91
ii. Comparative Analysis of Farm–saved Seed Exemption 
 
98
iii. Breeder’s Exemption and Essentially Derived Variety 
 
108
B. Intellectual Property Protection for Plant Innovation: Comparative Analysis 
 
112
ii. Modified Approach 
 
119
iii. Minimum Standards Provided by TRIPs 
 
121
C. Trends in Intellectual Property Protection for Plant Innovation 
 
125
i. Trends in Patent Protection 
 
125
ii. Trends in UPOV Model Plant Variety Protection 
 
134
D. Empirical Analysis of the Incentive Effects of IP Protection 
 
140
i. Incentive Effects on Agricultural Productivity Growth, Private Investment and R&D 
 
141
ii. Incentive Effects on Foreign Direct Investment and Trade 
 
155
Key Legal Challenges and Responses
 
A. Patent Law: Doctrinal Difficulties and Fluxes in the Formulations 
 
163
i. Reconfiguration of the Invention 
 
169
ii. Revisiting ‘Products of Nature’ Doctrine in the Biotech Era 
 
173
iii. Distinguishing the ‘Essentially’ Biological Process in the Biotech Era 
 
182
iv. Preion for the Product of Nature Doctrine: isolating and replicating natural to produce ‘unnatural’ 
 
188
v. Anything Under the Sun Made by Man that is ‘Markedly Different’ 
 
194
B. Co–Existence of PVP System and Patent Protection 
 
202
i. Distinction between overlapping protection and premise of mutual exclusiveness 
 
202
ii. De facto Overlaps between Patent and Plant Variety Protection Systems 
 
206